from “The Races
of Humanity” by Richard McCulloch, revised
August, 2019
http://www.racialcompact.com/racesofhumanity.html
It is generally agreed
that there were at least three major migrations or expansions of the
genus Homo out of east Africa into Eurasia, either crossing the Sinai
peninsula from Egypt into the Levant (the coast of what is now
Israel, Lebanon and Syria), or crossing the southern entrance of the
Red Sea (the Bab el Mandeb) from Djibouti in Africa to Yemen in Asia,
from where they spread throughout most of Eurasia and developed
into a variety of regional "archaic" human populations. The
first of these major expansions out of east Africa into
Eurasia was about 1.8 million years ago, the second about 600,000
years ago (associated with the spread of the Acheulean
culture), and the last shortly after 100,000 years ago. Beginning in
1987, based on genetic studies showing that the mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA) and the Y-chromosome of all living humans is derived from the
last of these major expansions, the common view expressed in the
popular press (called "Out-of-Africa") has been that the
modern humans of the final migration completely replaced the regional
archaic human populations from the first two major expansions. But
beginning in 2002 studies of other genes by Alan Templeton and others
have increasingly supported the view (called
"Out-of-Africa-Again-and-Again") that although all our
surviving mtDNA and Y-chromosome lineages as well as the majority of
our other genes derive from the most recent expansion, a significant
minority of our other genes have much older "coalescence"
dates and must therefore derive from the regional archaic human
populations of the first two major expansions. These studies indicate
that some genes from the regional populations of the first expansion
were assimilated and perpetuated by the populations of the second
expansion, and that some of the genes of both of the first two
(archaic) expansions were assimilated by the modern humans of the
final expansion.
The first dispersal of
modern humans probably began soon after the emergence of Homo
sapiens idaltu in east Africa about 195,000 years ago, with some
populations heading west into the tropical forest of the Congo basin
where they evolved into the Congoid subspecies (possibly with the
assimilation of some local archaic elements), others remaining in
east Africa where they evolved into the Capoid or Khoisanid
(San-Bushmen) subspecies, and others moving north to the shores of
the Red Sea, where they became the progenitors of the population that
eventually migrated out of Africa and populated the rest of the
world, possibly assimilating some of the regional archaic human
populations they encountered in varying degrees, and evolving into
the Australoid, Mongoloid and Caucasoid subspecies. By 130,000 years
ago there were perhaps 10,000 modern humans living in different
populations in different regions of Africa. About 120,000 years ago
one of these modern human populations that had expanded up the Nile
valley crossed the Sinai peninsula out of Africa into the Levant but
got no further, and by 90,000 years ago its members had either
returned to Africa or died out.
The following account of
the final major expansion out of east Africa into Eurasia, that of
the modern humans shortly after 100,000 years ago, is based largely
on the work of Stephen Oppenheimer as detailed in his book Out of
Eden: The Peopling of the World (2004) which was also the basis
for a Discovery Channel documentary titled The Real Eve.
The migrating modern
human population, probably numbering only a few hundred people at the
beginning, crossed from Africa to Asia at the southern entrance of
the Red Sea. From there they followed a beachcombing trek that took
them along the coastline of the Arabian Sea. The descendants of this
population gradually expanded and dispersed, with the initial
expansion being along the southern coast of Asia. The where and when
of these early human migrations was largely determined by geography,
especially changes in climate and sea level. The first main split or
division in the expansion occurred on the Iranian coast of the
Persian Gulf, with some groups continuing to move east while others
remained in southern Iran between the Zagros Mountains and the sea.
The second main branching or division probably occurred in southeast
Asia, with one group continuing to move eastward, reaching China by
68,000 years ago, and another group remaining in the Burma-Thailand
region where it evolved into a proto-Australoid population and then
expanded south through Malaysia and Indonesia, reaching New Guinea by
77,000 years ago and Australia by 65,000 years ago.
The eruption, or
explosion, of the Toba super-volcano in northern Sumatra circa 74,000
years ago, the largest such explosion in the last two million years,
perhaps 100 times larger than the Krakatoa event off southern Sumatra
in 1883, covered the entire Indian sub-continent in several meters of
ash, probably destroying almost all life, including the early human
population in the area. The populations to the east and south of the
eruption were spared its catastrophic effects, but the population in
southern Iran, and to a lesser extent the population in east Africa,
probably suffered severe climate effects. The population in west
Africa, protected by mountains to the east, was not as seriously
effected. Within a few thousand years India was repopulated from the
east by proto-Australoids.
By 50,000 years ago the
population that had remained in southern Iran had evolved into
proto-Caucasoids and began to expand -- to the east into Pakistan and
northern India; to the northwest up the Tigris-Euphrates valley to
the Levant by 45,000 years ago; and to the northeast through Central
Asia to Russia and the steppes of western Siberia, also by 45,000
years ago. From the Levant they expanded north into Anatolia, from
there entering Europe through the Balkans and spreading the
Aurignacian culture across southern Europe by 43,000 years
ago. From Russia they moved westward into Europe, spreading the
Gravettian culture, about 33,500 years ago. Shortly after this
another Caucasoid group expanded from the Levant across North Africa.
In this same time frame the population in Indochina and southern
China had evolved into proto-Mongoloids and expanded northwards into
the steppes of eastern Siberia, branching into southern and northern
Mongoloid groups. Some northern Mongoloids migrated northeast to
Berengia, a vast land between Siberia and Alaska that is now
underwater, from where they subsequently moved south into the
Americas.
By 30,000 years ago the
divergent evolutionary branching or dividing of the human species had
produced five main lines or subspecies which are still extant -- the
Congoid of West Africa; the Capoid of East and South Africa (later
replaced in East Africa by the Congoid); the Australoid of India,
Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, New Guinea and Australia; the Mongoloid of
East Asia (later expanding to the southwest into Burma, Malaya and
Indonesia, largely replacing the indigenous Australoids) and the
Caucasoid of Europe, North Africa and West Asia (partly replacing the
Mongoloids in the Americas after A.D. 1492 and the Australoids in
Australia after A.D. 1788). These subspecies branched or divided in
turn into separate races, and these races branched in their turn into
subraces, as part of the continuing process of divergent evolution.
Beginning about 20,000
years ago, when the global human population was perhaps a million,
the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) pushed the population of northern
Europe south to refuge areas in southern France, northern Spain, the
Balkans and Ukraine, while the now fully-developed northern Mongoloid
population in Siberia was also forced south to eastern and southern
China. Both populations were
greatly reduced in number during this period. (The expansion
of the southern Mongoloids into Malaya and Indonesia, partly
replacing and partly assimilating the native Australoids, probably
occurred during this period.) When the Last Glacial Maximum began to
recede about 15,000 years ago (13,000 B.C.) the survivors of these
populations expanded northward
again from their refuge areas, with Scandinavia being occupied by
humans for the first time about 10,000 years ago, by which time the
global human population had risen to about 10 million. Agriculture
and the Neolithic period also began about 10,000 years ago in
both the Middle East and China. The genetic ancestry of the native
European population as a whole is about 80% from the original Upper
Paleolithic inhabitants who survived the 5,000 years of the Last
Glacial Maximum in southern refuge areas and then re-expanded and
repopulated the central and northern regions of the continent, and
20% from the Neolithic farmers who expanded from Anatolia into Europe
starting about 8,000 years ago, with the latter element concentrated
primarily in the Mediterranean lands of southern Europe, indicating
that the initial spread of agriculture into central and northern
Europe was a process of cultural diffusion rather than a movement of
people.
The different races are
often popularly defined and named (often inaccurately) by skin color,
but as this system is based on only one genetic phenotypic
difference, when hundreds are involved, it tends to distort the
reality of race and racial differences. In the system of racial
classification outlined below the names assigned to the various
subspecies and races are, with a few exceptions, based on
geographical regions where they are the native type.